Ancient india: kalabhra,

Subject:

End of Sangam Age, arrival (ca. 300 to 600 CE) of kalabhra, kalavar 'navigators' from Andhra-Karnataka |

"A number of theories have been advanced for the identity of the Kalabhras.

T. A. Gopinath Rao equates them with theMuttaraiyars, andKallarsand an

inscription in the Vaikunta Perumal temple atKanchimentions a Muttaraiyar

named asKalavara-Kalvan. The wordKalabhramight possibly be aSanskritderivation of the TamilKalvan. M. Raghava Iyengar, on the other hand, identifies the Kalabhras with the Vellala

Kalappalars.The Velvikudi plates of the Pandyan kingParantaka

Nedunjadaiyanmention the Kalabhras and R. Narasimhacharya and

V. Venkayyabelieve them to have beenKarnatas..K. R. Venkatarama Iyer

suggests that the Kalabhras might have settled in theBangalore-Chittoorregion

early in the 5th century...

.The history ofCholasofUraiyur(Tiruchirappalli) is

exceedingly obscure from 4th to the 9th century, chiefly owing to the occupation of

their country by the Kalabhras.Buddhadatta, the great writer inPali, belonged to

Uraiyur. He mentions his contemporary, King Achyutavikranta of the Kalabharakula,

as ruling over the Chola country fromKaveripumpattinam. He was a Buddhist. Tamil literary

tradition refers to an Achyuta who kept the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers in captivity.

On the basis of the contemporaneity of Buddhadatta withBuddhaghosha, Achyuta may

be assigned to the 5th century. ...It is known that the Kalabhras patronised Hinduism,

Buddhism and Jainism.The late Kalabhras appear to have beenShaiviteandVaishnavite.

Scholar F. E. Hardy traced the palace ceremony to a Vishnu or Mayon temple to the rule of

the Kalabhras.They are known for patronising the Hindu god,SkandaorSubramanya.

They imprinted his image on their 5th-century coins, especially those of the

Kaveripumpattinam rulers.King Achyuta worshipped Vaishnava Tirumal...

The rule of the Kalabhras of South India was ended by the counter-invasions of

Pandyas, Chalukyas and Pallavas. There are other references to the Kalabhras in

Pallava andChalukyainscriptions. They were conquered by Pallava,Simhavishnuand Pandya,Kadungon."

Kalabhra dynasty

[quote]Historians have accepted that the people Muthuraja and its subsects are the descendants of the Kalabhras who invaded the South Indian peninsula including Ceylon and ruled it over for about 300 years.

Mutharayars andThe Kalabhra dynasty ruled over entire Tamil country in South Indian between the 3rd and the 6th century C.E. It is speculated that a warrior race called Kalabras were causing havoc all over south India. They terrorized the region for several centuries until at the beginning of the seventh century when the Pandias defeated them. They won over the ancient Chola, Pandya and Chera dynasties and replaced them. There is little information about their origin and details about their reign. They did not leave any monuments. The only source of information on them are to be found in Buddhist and Jain literature.

A tribe called Kalabhra hailing from the northern borders seems to have occupied and ruled the central and southern parts of the Tamil country. The northern languages, Prakrit first and Sanskrit subsequently, became to some extent the languages of the court and the elite in South Indian lands. Marches and migrations of warlike groups seem to have marked the later half of this period. A prominent martial group called the Kalabhra (or Kalappalar) occupying and ruling over the central and southern parts of the Tamil country is mentioned in some Pali works of the fifth century and in a few later records.

They were displaced around the 7th century by the revival of Pallava and Pandya power. Hindu scholars and authors who wrote in the 7th and 8th century C.E. when Pandya and Pallava had taken over again have written very little about the Kalabhra in their texts. Perhaps therefore the period of their rule is known as a 'Dark Age' Ã¢â‚¬â€œ an interregnum.

The identification of the Kalabhras is difficult. The most satisfactory theory identifies the Kalabhras with the Kalavar. The chieftains of this tribe mentioned in Sangam literature are Tiraiyan of Pavattiri and Pulli of Vengadam or Tirupati. The latter is described as the cattle lifting robber chief of the frontier. The Kalavar must have been dislodged from their habitat near Tirupati by political events of the third century A.D., viz. the fall of the Satavahanas and the rise of Pallavas, resulting in political confusion in Tondaimandalam.

Kalabhra => Kalabhrar => Kalabrar => Kalabar => Kalavar

Kalavar => Kalvar => Kallar

These Kalavars are the same as Kalabhras. When Satvahanas put pressure on them, these anti-Brahmanic Buddhist people who were ruling around Tirupati migrated to whole of South India and ruled most of it for centuries, and these centuries are now termed by Brahmin historians as `dark age', not only because scanty information is available from Brahmanic sources but also because it was anti-Brahmanic age. They were abused by the Brahmins and their history was wiped out. But the Buddhist books still preserve their history.

They have also been identified with the line of Muttaraiyar of Kondubalur eighth to eleventh century C.E. Another view is that the Kalabhras were Kalappalar, belonging to the Vellala community referred to in Tamil literature and inscriptions.

Kalabhra => Kalabhra => Kalabbra => Kalabba => Kalappa => Kalappalar

Others regard Kalabhras as Karnatas on the strength of a reference in Tamil literature to the rule of a Karnata king over Madurai. Kalappirar or Kalabras were native karnatakas and some claim they even belong to Southern Madhyapradesh.

Even after Sangam Chola's period, Poompuhar occupied a significant place during the regime of Kalabras, in the 6th century A.D. After Kalabras, Poompuhar came under the Pallava rulers and during that time they built the Pallavaneeswaran temple. Poompuhar in ancient times was the port capital of the Cholas, and indeed puhar means "estuary" or "river mouth of the sea." During the reign of Karikala Cholan, Poompuhar became a great city and Inscriptions at Thiruvengadu talk of a grand festival of Indra later Chola's times.

Kalabhras of South India were the Kalachuris of Central India

Basically, Kalchuri kings were supporters of Jainism. Many Pallava and Pandya writings describe that the Kalabhras attacked the Tamil country and defeated the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas and established their kingdom. Prof., Ramaswami Ayangar asserts that these valiant Kalabhra kings were the devoted followers of Jainism. He proved it on the basis of copper plate of Veluikudi and Painyapuranam of Tamil language. Jainism flourished after their reaching in Tamil country. Shri Ayangar presumes that these Kalabhras were a branch of Kalchuri clan. The Kalchuri kings of M.P. wore supporters of Jainism. The evidence on this is that they were closely related to Rashtrakuta. The Rashtrakuta kings had their faith in Jainism. The influence of Jainism during reign of Kalchuri kings of Kalyani was perceptible. The prominent king Vijjala of this clan and his several statesmen had adopted Jainism. Rechmayya, the minister of Kalchuri State set up the image of Tirthankar Shantinath at Shravanabelagola.

A lot of feudatories of the cholas had kalabra origin.It is the openion of some historians that in the lack of absence of one fight to break the back bone of the all powerful kalbras is that they slowly broke up and emerged as mutharayar, sambuvarayars etc.

Meenavars ( Kolis ?) might have mixed with Parada or Paratarajas or Parvata Raja Kulam ( Valmikis ? ) , an Indo- Scythian clan and got alienated from the Villavar and Nadalvar (Nadar) clans. Mudirajus or Mutharaiyar a Kalabhra aristocracy who once ruled Chera, Chola and Pandyan kingdoms as Muvendars regard Paratas as one of their own clan. Parataraja.

Kalabhras were Buddhist & Jain Kings

Tamil Sangam Literature such as Manimekalai indicate that there were Buddhists in the Tamil country and that the Buddhist missionaries were active in spreading their religion. Buddhism entered South India during the period of Asoka who established Buddhist missions all over the Indian sub continent and sent missionaries to Sri Lanka and to China.

Some controversial historians speculate that the Kalabhras followed the Buddhist or Jain faiths and were antagonistic towards the Hindu and Brahman religions of the majority population of the Tamil region during the early centuries C.E. Other controversial historians speculate that they were the product of 'Brahmanism' and tried to destroy 'casteless society'.

Kalabhras, by invading the Tamil country, disturbed the prevailing order. The Velvikudi inscriptions of the third regnal year of Pandya king Nedunjadaiyan (c.765 - c. 815 C.E.) say that Pandya king Mudukudumi Peruvaludi gave the village of Velvikudi as brahmadeya (gift to a Brahmins). It was enjoyed for a long time. Then a Kali king named Kalabhran took possession of the extensive earth, driving away numberless great kings.

The period of Kalabhras was marked by the ascendancy of Buddhism, and probably also of Jainism. It was characterized by considerable literary activity in Tamil. Most of the works grouped under the head, 'The Eighteen Minor works' might have been written during this period as also the Cilappadhikaram, Manimekalai and other works. Many of the authors were characterised as belonging to the `heretical' sects (meaning Buddhists and Jains).

The Kalabras were Buddhist, but a remarkable thing about their coins is their popularization of the gods of the Hindu religion like that of Subramanya and Vinayaka. Kalabhras fought against Brahmin supremacy and were abused by Brahmin epigraphists after their rule ended.

The late Kalabras appear to have been Shivite and Vaishnava. Scholar F.E. Hardy traced the palace ceremony to a Vishnu or Mayon temple to the rule of the Kalabras. Scholar Alice Justina Thinakaran writes that perhaps they were Saiva, Jain or Buddhist.

In the Brahmanical literature, the Kalabhras are "roundly as evil kings (kali-arasar) who uprooted many and abrogated brahmadeya rights". However, the modern researches have shown that the Kalabhras were neither nor enemies of civilization but were a very civilized people and in fact their reign saw the creation of excellent Tamil mixture. The primary reason as to why they were ignored or by the brahmins was because they were Buddhists.

The date of Kalabhra invasion looks realistic as we have approximately determined the date of the Arimarthana Pandiyan around A.D.312, and possibly the Kalabhra invasion took place during the rule of his son the Sakanaatha Pandiyan in A.D.350 who is known to us from the "Thiruvilaiyaadal Puraanam". The Buddhism and Jainism had already spread to some extent in Tamil Nadu earlier during the 3rd Sangam Period, but it was only after the Kalabhra capture of Tamil Nadu the Jainsm became deeply rooted as a religion of this region with the patronage of this king.

The Velvikkudi Grant

These inscriptions are one of the few sources that provides information about the Kalabhra Dynasty rule in South India.

The Velvikkudi grant of Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan, consists of two parts, the Sanskrit and Tamil parts (like the other copper plates) The Sanskrit portion stops with the listing of the geneaology of Parantaka. The Tamil part begins straight away with the details of the appeal that the village Velvikkudi was gifted to one Narkorran (also kniown as Korkai Kilan), by the Pandya ruler, Palyagasalai Mudukudumip peruvaludi, when he completed a Yaga (Velvi). It is said that the village was in the long possession of the donee (nidu bhukti tuyttapin) when the Kali king, named Kalabhra, who overthrew a number of rulers (Adhirajaas), deprived the donee's family, the enjoyment of the village.

What copper plate grant says ?: One Narkorran complained to the Jatila Varama Parakantan that the village which was given to one of his ancestors by Mutukudumi Peruvaludi was taken possession of by the Kalabhras during their invasion of Madura and that, since then it had remained as Government property. After satisfying that the proofs furnished by Narkkoran were authentic, the king granted the village back to him.

Not much is known about Kadungon. Most of the knowledge about him comes from the Velvikudi (or Velvikkud) inscription of the Pandya king Parantaka Nedunchadaiyan (also Nedunjadaiyan or Nedunchezhiyan). According to this inscription, Kadungon defeated several petty chieftains and destroyed "the bright cities of unbending foes". It describes him as the one who liberated the Pandya country from the Kalabhras and emerged as a "resplendent sun from the dark clouds of the Kalabhras". His defeat of Kalabhras (considered Jains or Buddhists) was hailed as the triumph of Brahminism.

In the Sendalai Pillar inscription of Perumbidugu Muttaraiya, the latter is styled "the king Maran, the Lord of Tanjai (Ko-Maran-ranjai-kkon) and Kalvar-Kalvan, Tanjai-nar-pugal-alan, a Kalva of Kalvas, the distinguished Lord of tanjai." It is very likely that in the title Kalvar-Kalvan we have to seek the origin of the name Kalabhra. Perhaps Perumbidugu Muttaraiyan was a member of the latter family which in the Velvikudi plates is said to have held the Pandya country under its sway prior to Kadungon.

King Achchutavikranta

The history of Cholas of Uraiyur (Tiruchirappalli) is exceedingly obscure from fourth to the ninth century C.E., chiefly owing to the occupation of their country by the Kalabhras. Buddhadatta, the great writer in Pali, belonged to Uraiyur. A Buddhist writer Buddhadatta or Thera Buddhaatta as he is called lived during the time of Accyutarikkanta, Kalabra ruler of the Cola-nadu. He mentions his contemporary, King Achchutavikranta of the Kalabharakula, as ruling over the Chola country from Kaveripattinam. He was a Buddhist. Tamil literary tradition refers to an Achchuta who kept the Chera, Chola and Pandya kings in captivity. On the basis of the contemporaneity of Buddhadatta with Buddhaghosha, Achchuta may be assigned to the fifth century. Thus, after the Sangam age, the Cholas were forced into obscurity by the Kalabhras, who disturbed the placid political conditions of the Tamil country. Acchchutakalaba is likely the last Kalabhra king.

The best known of the Kalabhras, Accuta Vikkanta, the Kalabhra ruler and conqueror of Madurai was himself, according to Stein, probably a Buddhist. Jainism and Buddhism had thus a practical egalitarian significance for those who did not want to accept the rigid caste-based socio-ideological frame which was advancing with the agricultural civilization".

Accuta Vikranta could be the same as Achutha Kalappalan

We have little information about the Kalabhra rule in the Tamil country. The Tamil grammar Yapperunkalam refers to a Kalabhra king, namely Achutha Kalappalan. It appeared that he ruled the Tamil country from Uraiyur. He had also patronised the Tamil poets. A Buddhist scholar namely Buddhadatta lived in his kingdom. According to traditions, he imprisoned the Chera, Chola and Pandyan rulers. He had extended patronage to Buddhism and Buddhist monasteries.

King Kootruva Nayanar

In Periya Puranam we find a Kalabhra King (Kootruva Nayanar) asking theDikhsitars to crown him.But the dikshtars say that "Chozharku anri Veru yarrukum Mudi sootamaatom" and refuse.Also as they have refused to crown the kalabhra they fled to north for safety leaving behind several families.

For more details about the abovekalabhra kings, readers are requested to see web page "KINGS" in this website.

King Karunada Venthan

According to the text "Life and Works of Buddagosha" by K.C.Law, extracted from "Pallavar Varalaaru" by Dr.M.Rasamanikkanar) and confirmation by the following reference in in Tamil Saiva work titled "Kalladam"

"Ã¢â‚¬Â¦Ã¢â‚¬Â¦padai naangu udan Panchavan thuranthu Mathurai vaviya Karunada venthan Aruhar sarnthu nintru arutpani adaippaÃ¢â‚¬Â¦Ã¢â‚¬Â¦.",br>

Panchavan is the Pandiyan and "Karunada venthan" is the Kalabra king, and "Aruhar" are the followers of Jain religion.This Venthan could be a Vethan / Vedhan / Vedan. So the Kalabheas who invaded the South Indian Penensula could be the Valmikis of Thirupathi - Srikalahasti region of Andhra Pradesh. These Valmikis were part of Mudiraja community during medieval times and still a subcaste of Mudiraj in some parts of Andhra Pradseh. These valmikis who are known as vetars / Vetans / Vedans / Kannappakula in Tamilnadu are also a subcaste of Muthuraja community. In Telugu Veta means hunting and Vetar means hunter.

Veta => Vetar => Vetan => Vethan => Venthan

King Kurran

From about the end of 4th century about the last quarter of 6th, the district, like many other parts of Tamil Nadu was under the Kalabhras. It must have come under the King Kurran, inscription of whom has been found in Pulankurichi near Ponnamaravathi in the district.

Dr.R.Nagaswamy : Epigraphy The most outstanding discovery in the field of Epigraphy in recent years, is the Pulankuruchi rock inscriptioin of King Cendan ( Centan ) Kurran, brought to light by the Tamilnadu State Department of Archaeology, during the village to village survey of Epigraphs and Antiquities. The Trichy District Archaeological Officer, Thiru D. Tulasiraman discovered this epigraph, inscribed on the slopes of a hillock. The inscription is significant in many respects. It is the longest early inscription noticed so far, running to over 15 metres (45 feet) in length and two metres (6 feet) in height. The record is in excellent Tamil and written with great care, free from orthographical errors. The inscription is dated in the year 192, (Nurru Tonnurru Irandu) and day 36, and month Tai and is inscribed in the reign of King Ko-Cendan Kurran.

Pulamkuruchi / Pulankuruchi: In this connection, a remarkable epigraph in Tamil, from Pulamkuruchi in the Pudukkotai region deserves notice. (Read and published by me for the first time in 1981). The inscription, is dated in the 3rd cent. CE. There are three segments of the inscriptions. The central one is damaged fully, the first one is damaged at the beginning while the third is in good shape. The record is dated in the year, one hundred ninety two, probably Saka era, and was issued by theking Koccendan Kurran.

Krishnan reads "Koc Cendan marraimpadu". The word after Cendan has been read as "marrai" i.e. 'and' consequently it is taken that the record dated in the 30th regnal year of Koc Cendan. The ruler is identified by Krishnan with Cendan, the son and successor of Maravarman Avani sulamani. The revised reading according to me would be "Koc Cendan Maran aimpadu" which means the 50th regnal year of Cendan Maran,i.e.Maran, son of Cendan and not of Cendan himself.

Kalabhra King of Pundra

Details about this Kalabhra king of Pundra are not available except that he is known to be the ancestor of Dhatusena King of Ceylon 459-477 AD. Kasyapa son of king Dhatusena (459 - 477 AC.) had his father arrested and walled alive within his tomb. His brother Moggallana, who was the legitimate successor to the throne, was sent into exile abroad, and Kasyapa was named king. For more details about King Dhatusena and his sons, readers may see web page "KINGS" in this website.Kasyapa or Kassapa is one of the gotrams of Telugu Mudiraj people today.

The standing Buddha statue at Aukana, is the one of the tallest in Sri Lanka and is an architectural marvel of the ancient Sri Lankans, and is carved out of a rock boulder. The rock cut statue which stands 38 feet 10 ins (39') above its decorated lotus plinth and 10 feet across the shoulders, belongs to the period of King Dhatusena (459-477 AD), the builder of the great reservoir Kalawewa.

End of Sangam period with the advent of Kalabhras

The Sangam Age came to an end during the middle of theThird century A.D. The closing years of the Sangam Age was called the post-Sangam period. Then the Kalabhras captured the Tamil country from the Chera, Chola and Pandyan rulers.

The classical period ended around the fourth century AD with invasions by the Kalabhra, referred to as the kalappirar in Tamil literature and inscriptions. The Cheras of the Sangam Age temporarily went off the stage of Tamil history when the country came under Kalabhra rule. The Tamil Navalar Charitai speaks of Chera submission to the kalabhras.

There were indications of the declining trends in the Tamil society even during the post-Sangam period. The North Indian religions, namely Buddhism and Jainism began to spread in the Tamil region. The traditional religious beliefs of the Tamil people gave way to the new religious ideas.

The post-Sangam literature consists of the twin epics - Silappathikaram and Manimekalai and also Pathinen Keezhkanakku. The impulse of these works was oriented towards reforming the society. Morality in political and social life had been strictly insisted in the poems of Thirukkural, Inna Narpathu, Iniyavai Narpathu and Naladiyar. But finally, the Kalabhra rule had put an end to the classic age of the Sangam.

The Golden Age of Kalabhras termed as Dark Age ( Kalabhra Interregnum )

The last Sangam ended around the 2nd century CE with the invasion of Kalabras from the north. Interregnum is the period starting sometime after the end of the third Sangam and ending sometime prior to the rise of the Pallavas (mid 5th century CE), during which there was a definitive break in the continuity of Tamil culture.

Kalabhra interregnum is called as 'dark period' because it is so called by earliest Pallava and Medieval Pandya sources. 95% of the earliest Tamil inscrptions called Tamil Brahmi are for the sake of Jain ascetics. These inscriptions are very short, one or two lines only. During kalabhras rule, the Jain and Buddhist religions and literature flurished. Unfortunately, we have very few sources to study the history of the Kalabhras other than the Jain & Buddhist literature. This is one of the reasons to call this period as Dark Age.

Kalappirar are Jains, and appear to have come from Karnataka, a Jain strong hold. During the Kalabhra period, heterodoxy, opposed to Brahmanical orthodoxy, reigned supreme. Pallavas and Medieval Pandyas, who accepted the varnashrama and Brahmanical orthodoxy, driven out the kalabhra rulers and completely routed out the "heterodox" religions. Both Buddhism and Jainism were practically extinguished. Hence, these "orthodox" sources portray Kalabhra period as "dark period".

With the ending of the progressive Sangam Age that was beamed with the literary advance in South Indian literature, the light faded and Kerala underwent a dark phase that lasted almost for four centuries. This epoch is known as 'Kalabhra Interregnum' and has been referred as the Dark Age in the history of Kerala. The Kalabhra Kings created mayhem and disrupted the social and political order of the South Indian Peninsula by overthrowing and deracinating the Adhirajas of Chera, Chola and Pandya dynasties which were a part of present day Kerala and Tamil Nadu. These valorous Kalabhra Kings ruled with an upper hand, relentlessly for almost three hundred years from 300 AD to 600AD. The reign of Kalabhras of South India finally came to an end in the 8th Century AD when the Pallavas, Pandyas, Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas extirpated them from South India.

Little is known about the transition period of around three centuries from the end of the Sangam age (300 AD) to that in which the Pandyas and Pallavas dominate the Tamil country. An obscure dynasty, the Kalabhras, invaded the Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled for around three centuries. Later Kalabhras were displaced by the Pallavas and the Pandyas in the sixth century AD.

The Kalabhras had occupied the Tamil country from the middle of the Third century A.D. to the end of the Sixth century A.D. The literary sources for this period include Tamil Navalar Charithai, Yapperunkalam and Periyapuranam. The Velvikkudi and Dalavaipuram copper plates also mention about the Kalabhras. The inscriptions at Thiruppugalur and Vaikunda Perumal temple in Kanchipuram also refer to the Kalabhra rule.

It is significant that during the Kalabhra reign which lasted nearly 300 years, Buddhism was at its best in and around Kanchi, ancient Tondaimandalam. And there flourished a number of Buddhist saints and scholars, such as Nagaguttanar, author of Kundalakesi, (4th century), Buddhadatta, the Pali commentator, (5th Century), Dinaga, the great logician, (5th century), Dhammapala, another Pali commentator, (6th century), and Bodhidharma, the great Dhyana teacher, (6th century). The association of Buddhaghosha, the greatest Pali scholar and commentator, who was contempoary of Buddhadatta, further confirms the ascendency of Buddhism during the Kalabhra Interregnum in the Tamil land.

Even the Tamil literature got a boost during the Kalabhra reign and this period was marked by great literary activity. Nilakanta Sastri observes: "This dark period marked by the ascendency of Buddhism and probably also of Jainism, was characterized also by great literary activity in Tamil. Most of the works grouped under the head The Eighteen Minor Works were written during this period as also the Silappadikaram, Manimckhalai and other works. Many of the authors were the votaries of the 'heretical' sects.

We can find a lot of difference between the society and culture of the Sangam Age and those of the Kalabhra rule. There was a political chaos during the Kalabhra rule. The secular outlook of the Sangam period gave way to the religious outlook of the Kalabhras. Both Buddhism and Jainism became dominant religions during the Kalabhra period. Particularly, the Jain monks had preached Jainism in the Tamil country. They were patronised by the Kalabhra rulers. At the same time, efforts were made to remove the evils from the society. The Tamil Siddhars like Thirumoolar had preached their philosophical ideas. Morals and ethics had been preached through education and literature.

The Kalabhra rule in the Tamil country had witnessed the growth of education and literature. Sanskrit and Prakrit languages had been introduced in the Tamil region. This had resulted in the development of a new script called Vattezhththu. The Tamil literature had also taken new forms and the Tamil grammar had also undergone a few changes during this period. Many works under Pathinen Kilkanakku were composed during this period. Epics like Sivaka Chinthamani and Kundalakesiwere written. Nigandus were also composed during the Kalabhra period.

The Buddhist and Jain monks had contributed much to the growth of education. The Buddhist educational institutions were called Ghatikas. Scholars like Buddhadatta, Buddhaghosha and Bodhidharma lived during this period. The Jain Pallis had remained important educational centres during the Kalabhra rule. The Jain Palli (School) at Thirupathirippuliyur remained an important educational centre during this period. Sarva Nandi and Vajra Nandi were the two great Jain scholars, who lived in this period.

Vajra is a gotra among Telugu Mudiraj people today and it is difficult to to say if it is having any direct or indirect relation to Vajra Nandi, the jain scholar.

During the end of the Kalabhra rule, the religion Saivism began to emerge as a great religion. Some of the Kalabhra rulers had embraced Saivism. However, it was only after the end of the Kalabhra rule, the Bakthi-cult flourished in the Tamil country through which both Saivism and Vaishnavism began to flourish.

There are also literary sources which tell that Woraiyur continued to be under the control of Cholas even during the days of Kalabhra interregnum (A.D. 300 - 575). Tamilakam, the traditional name for the Tamil lands, was politically united during the Kalabhra rule in 3rd and the 6th century CE.

There was the concept of the Kalabhra Interregnum, based on the statement in Iraiyanar Akapporul that the Kalabhras displaced the Three Great Kings Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Muvarasar of Tamilakam Ã¢â‚¬â€œ and uprooted the old order of society, polity and culture. In the absence of clear evidence it is difficult to accept that a major shake up of this magnitude occurred in South India. On the other hand we find the continuation of the Muvarasar politics in the later period also.

Coins of Kalapiras

A small number of coins attributed to this dynasty have recently come to light, found in and around Madurai. One of the Kalabhra coins is a small, square specimen, each side measuring 2 cm. made of copper and weighs 7.45 grams. The obverse portrays a big tusker with its trunk hanging downwards and terminating in an inward twist. Above the elephant is a legend in Tamil language and Tamil-Brahmi script, written in anti-clockwise direction. It reads Kalapira.

The most remarkable thing about the coins is the popularisation by the Kalabras of the cults of the Hindu pantheon like that of Subramanya and Vinayaka. It appears that at a later stage the Kalabras became Hindu. The Kalabras appear to have been Vaishnava. Scholar F.E. Hardy traced the palace ceremony to a Vishnu or Mayon temple to the rule of the Kalabras. Scholar Alice Justina Thinakaran writes that perhaps they were Saiva, Jain or Buddhist

Kalabhras could be internal revolters but in favour of Buddhism and against Hinduism

he Tamil Kings (Pandiyan, Cholan and Cheran) had friendly relations with Mauryan Empire. The Brahamin champaign gradually spread to South India and destroyed the casteless Sanagam Tamil Era. In Tamilnadu a casteless, Sangam period came to an end at about the 2nd or 3rd Century A.D. with the attack or upraisal of Kalavars. With this attack the Tamil Sangam (Champaign to spread Tamil) came to a halt. Kalavaram means upraisal, revolution, chaos in Tamil; The Kalavars were later on called as Kalabras. The raise of the Kalabras made sweeping changes in the South Indian Society. (Though there is no details on who the Kalavars / Kalabras were, Thiru.Devasirvatham thinks the Kalavars / Kalabras were internal revolters that revolted against the Tamil Kings to establish a new order). So the Kalabras may be part of a Brahamin campaign to destroy Tamil Kingdoms that did not support Brahamanism or can be Jain revolters or Robbery tribes that simply looted the well established and civilized non-Brahamin Tamil society and established a different order from 3rd Century A.D. to 5th Century A.D.

After the 5th Century A.D. the Pallavas and Later Cholas who were Mallas, destroyed the Kalabras and rose to power but gradually and partially adopted Brahamanism because by the time Brahamanism became an unavoidable phenomenon.

The City of Poompuhar

Kalabhras invaded the Poompuhar city of Cholas. Presently it is known as Kaveripoompattinam. Puhar means the estuary of river in the sea. Poombuhar is located in Sirkali Taluk of Nagapattinam District. The ancient Kings like Sembiyan, Musugundhan, Manuneethicholan and Karikal cholan.

Even after Sangam Chola`s period Poompuhar occupied a significan place during the regime of Kalabras. After the Kalabras in the 6th century A.D. Poompuhar came under the Pallava regime and during that time Pallavaneesswaram temple was built by them.

The City of Uraiyur

he early Chola Empire lasted from 300 BC to 200 AD. Its major cities were Urayur and Kaveripattinam with the original capital being at Urayur. Around 200 AD, they were conquered by the Kalabhras.

The history of Cholas of Uraiyur ( Tiruchirappalli ) is exceedingly obscure from fourth to the ninth century C.E., chiefly owing to the occupation of their country by the Kalabhras. Buddhadatta, the great writer in Pali, belonged to Uraiyur. He mentions his contemporary, King Achchutavikranta of the Kalabharakula, as ruling over the Chola country from Kaveripattinam.

The first Pali scholar of Tamil Nadu was Buddhadatta. He was at Uragapura, modem Uraiyur, in the fifth century AD. He called Pali and Buddhism at the Mahavihara at Anuradhapura of Sri Lanka. Buddhadatta was contemporary of the great Pali and commentator, Buddhaghosha.

The Tamil grammar Yapperunkalam refers to a Kalabhra king, namely Achutha Kalappalan. It appeared that he ruled the Tamil country from Uraiyur. He had also patronised the Tamil poets. A Buddhist scholar namely Buddhadatta lived in his kingdom. According to traditions, he imprisoned the Chera, Chola and Pandyan rulers. He had extended patronage to Buddhism and Buddhist monasteries.

End of Kalabhra Dynasty rule

The rule of Kalabhras of South India was ended by the counter invasions of Pandyas, Chalukyas and Pallavas. There are other references to the Kalabhras in Pallava and Chalukya inscriptions. They were conquered by Pallava Simhavishnu and Pandya Kadungon.

By the end of the Sixth century A.D. the Pandyan ruler Kadungon had liberated the southern part of the Tamil country from the Kalabhras. By the same period, the Pallava king, Simhavishnu had captured Tondaimandalam and Cholamandalam from the Kalabhras. Thus, the Kalabhra rule in Tamil country came to an end due to the ascendancy of the Pandyas and Pallavas.

The rise of the Pallavas began with Simhavishnu about the middle of tile sixth century A.D. He put an end to the Kalabhra Interregnum in Tandaimandalam (Kanchi Region), and extended his kingdom southward up to the Kaveri delta.

Vikramaditya II (733 Ã¢â‚¬â€œ 744 CE) was the son of King Vijayaditya and ascended the Chalukya dynasty throne following the death of his father. The capture of Kanchipuram which in itself symbolised the cumulative power of the three traditional kingdoms of Tamil country placed the Pandyas, Chola and the rulers of Kerala kingdoms at the mercy of Vikramaditya II. He then overran these kingdoms and defeated a Kalabhra ruler as well. These victories were inscribed in his inscription on the shores of the Indian ocean.

After the decline of the Kalabhra rule, Hinduism was once again revived and Buddhism and Jainism began to decline. The Pandyan kings had patronized Vaishnavism, Saivism and Jainism. The Nayanmars had preached Saivism while the Alwars preached Vaishnavism. They had spread the spirit of Bakthi among the people. The spread of Bakthi cult inculcated religious feelings and service mindedness among the people. These qualities had taken deep roots in the Tamil society.[unquote]

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Senthil Kumaras' note on Kalabhra (3 May 2015

[quote]

THE GLORIOUS TAMIL KALABHRAS and THE FIRST REPUBLICS in ancient India

THE FIRST PEASANT REVOLUTION of the World: South India c.240 CE -the rise of the commons:THE KALABHRAS REPUBLICS:

MYTH : Kalabhras were "vaduga-karunadaththavar" as noted in Periyapuraanam and Saivite literature and copperplates of 10th-12th cent. CE.

TRUTH: These literary mentions were a solid 500-700 years past the end of Kalabhras period (250-550 CE). They were just mentions of misquotes of dreaded legends. Kalabhras were fearsome to the Sanatana Hindus (Brahmins), but friendly to the native followers of the Ancient Tamil Sivanerri, the religion of the masses. They had forbidden the northern Sanatana rituals.

Regarding the names "VADUGA" and "KARUNADU": Vaduga in Tamil denotes "those of the northern boundaries" which are the regions south of the river Krishna and north of the river Tunghabhadra, including Guntur, Kurnool, Raichur, Koppal, Hospet, and Panjim (Goa). Except Panjim which was probably the Paazhi naadu which is an ancient Tamil kingdom in tussle with the Cheras in the Cankam ages even from around 250 BCE, all the above regions on the southern banks of Krishna, were occupied by Tamil tribals who were illiterates, less civilized, predominantly hunters, robbers, and never formed a kingdom anytime in their history.Â

Kalabhras were called as barbarians by the brahmins and the brahmin-supporting Tamil kings, solely because of the Kalabhras' anti-Vedic preferences, hence the use of the term VADUGA to denote them as barbaric sects.

KARUNADU is nothing but the alternate name for the ancient Tamil country of ERUMAIYUR lying south of Kudagu (Coorg), and to the north of Thoatti malai (Doddabetta, Ooty). Erumaiyur kings were well documented in the Cankam literature from before 300 BCE. Erumaiyur is the current Mysore, thecolloquially used name for(Eru)Maiyur. Mai denotes black(or Karu), and Ur denotes place(or nadu), hence Mysore or Erumaiyur and Karunadu or Karnataka both denote the same region. As seen below one of the seven prime instigators of the Kalabhras revolts was the chieftain of Erumaiyur Aai Viyankoe. Hence partly true in the later mentions is that atleast one of the seven prime Tamil Kalabhra chiefs was a "Karunadagan" from the Tamil country of Erumaiyur.

One other important perspective is that the British called the Tamil Nadu in the 1700's as "the Carnatic" region (as evidenced in their historical maps of East India Company) most probably owing to the dark complexion of the Tamil masses.

The ancient kingdoms in the present Karnataka state were the Tamil countries of Kadamba (Uttar Kannad and Hubli), Paazhi (Goa), Erumaiyur (Mysore), Kuttuva nadu (Kodagu), etc. The natives of Karnataka are historically and genotypically Tamils -offshoots of ancient Tamils, and spoke Tamil until the early medieval period, when offshoots of Pallavas and the frequent encroaches of the foreign Chalukyas (of Kolhapur, Badami, and Kalyani present Maharashtra) and Rashtrakutas, brought isolation and metamorphosis of the Tamil population there into a different culture and language -Kannada.

MYTH:They were barbaarians who brought in the dark ages in ancient Tamil countries.

TRUTH: The Kalabhras age was no less in richness and literature than the Cankam or the later religious renaissance ages.

Religion of the masses during Kalabhra era:The popular and the state religion was predominantly the ancient Tamil Saivitism from Porunai and Indus ages, in the Pagan mode. The alien Sanskritic practice of Sanatana and the influence of the refugee/immigrant brahmins and their odd rituals were kept to a bare minimum. Secularism was in vogue, and Ajivika, Buddhist and Jain monks were free to practice their modes of worshipping God -Naasthika -"any mode of worship other than the six old north Indian Vedic Aasthikas."

Literature in Tamil from this era include most of the Eighteen of the Next Row -Pathinennkeezhkanakku anthologies, the last three of the Five Great Epics -Aimperungaapiyangal and the Five Small Epics-Ainjirru kaappiyangal.

The first few of Nayanmars and Azhwars were supposed to hail from this era, and some enjoyed the patronage of the heads of these Kalappara states.Most importantly few of the earliest Naayanmaars were some of the Kalabhra chiefs themselves, like Meipporulh Naayanaar and Sundarar.

Kalabhras or Kalapparar in Tamil, were literally common men -"peasants" and "labourers" from the Tamil ethnic community. It had been misunderstood that they were outsiders from grossly misinterpreted documentations in Post-Cankam Tamil literature, which just call them as "sects from outside the royal clans".

These sects formed a consortium of"kala-parar"-beginning with widespread successful coups by the "field-toilers" (kalham-field, para/paadu-toil) --the peasants, and the footsoldiers of the infantry in the armies of the three kings the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras, dismantling the regimes of these kings.

Background:Towards the end of 2nd century CE, immigrant Brahmins on the pretext of being Saivites and practicing novel religious rituals such as the Yaagas, Mantras, etc., started claiming and enjoying special status with the kings.

It had been documented clearly that whole villagesen blocwere used to be donatedby the kings to these Sanskritite scholars, just for themaintenance of rituals in the temples were the brahmins were posted, all carried out on the advice of the latter.

As a fallout of excessive land allocations and donations to the immigrant Brahmin people, large number of people lost their agricultural lands, farms, livelihood areas and even their residential sites to the incoming sects.

Soon the common people rose up against the emperors, kings and overlords, threw the incumbent rulers who were unconcerned about the plight of the natives off their thrones, and established small city-states governed by elected representatives, with the support of local chieftains. Lost lands were secured back from the brahmins. (Though similar grants to the latter visitors were made again extensively in medieval Chola and Pandya periods).

Principally headed by Thiraiyan of Pavutirai, Milattumalaiyan, Ilankumanan and Aai Viyankoe, the partial rulers-list of Kalabhras include:

Thiraiyan of Pavuthirai (Thondainadu) c250 CE

Pulli of Vengadam c250 CE

Kaazhimalaiyan of Miladu c250 CE

Velkezhu Nallikkoen of Thottivettuvam c250 CE

Ilankumanan of Mudhiramalai c250 CE

Idakali of Nadunadu c250 CE

Aai Viyankoe of Erumaiyur c250 CE

Idagazhinan II c325 CE

...

Achu-thaavi Karanthan c450-506 CE

Kootran a.k.a Kootruva Nayanar c510 CE

Meyyapporul Nayanar c530 CE

Cedivallavan c540 CE

...

From around 76 CE, the Thondaimaans of Kanchi, who were primarily from Ilanthiraiyan Thondaimaan I born to Karikala Chola and a Naga princess from Eezham(Srilanka) continued to rule as kings even during and after the widespread Kalabhra revolts and coups in Tamilagam, since they had befriended the Kalabhras as they had supported the Kalabhra risings in the south.Pavuthiraiyan Thondaiman IIIaround 240 CE had marital relationships with the Pullis of Venkata Nadu, the Vakatakas, and the erstwhile Satavahanas of the far north. TheSatavahanashad patronized both Prakrit and Tamil, Tamil because it was probably the lingua franca of their masses.(Evidenced from Tamil script in the Satavahana coins of 1st and 2nd cent. CE).

Around 210 CE, the Thondaimaans had unified ten kingdoms - nine smaller neighbour kingdoms like Malli, Poozhi, Aruvaa, Maavilankai, Aamoor, Venkatam, Kanimalai, Kadalmallai and Vaiyavi along with their own Thondainaadu. Hence the unified region was called as"the country of ten states" or "Pallava naadu"and the rulers"Pallavas". (Pal and Paththu in Tamil mean"a set of ten").

The Cholas and the Milaattu Malaiyanswere the guardians and army chiefs for the Central and Oriental Kalabhra Republican city states. The Chola princes patronized the republic states and gave up their regal claims for the welfare of their masses, and people lived in peace and wars were unheard of until the resurgence of brahminical influence among the Pandiyan kings, that necessitated yet another cleansing of the Madurai aristocrats.

Seemingly the Kalabhras in the Chola country were not that frequently bothered by the Pallavas due to the cordial relationship with them until Simmavishnu's reign (550 CE). (Mentions of Chola princes and princesses are seen in the documentation ofreign and battles ofNarasimma Varmanand Kochadaiyan Ranadeeran).

Starting from around 250 CE until 560 CE, the Kalabhras ruled the city states all over Tamilagam except Kanchi in the northeast. They had replaced the Pandiyas, the Cheras, and the Cholas from the power.

By 506 CE Cholas were handed over the reins by the Kalabhras when they had to concentrate on Madurai following the sudden demise of Achchu-Thaavi Karanthan the Kalabhra great.Pugazhkkoe Cholatook over the Chola country (as per Mahavamsa); he was highly ambitious, he invaded the Cheras defeating Maakkoathai and alsosent armies to and conquered Srilanka, and placed fiveChola noblemen as governors in North and Central Srilanka who ruled there for the next 27 years.

By 560 CE, Pandiyas under Kadunkoen II had completely seized the Madurai throne after the Kalabhra ruler of Uraiyur, Miladu and Madurai, Meipporul Naayanaar was murdered by a Pandya prince in the disguise of a Saiva saint.

Pandya kings' victories over the masses' Kalabhra republics were documented to have been hailed and celebrated by the brahmins in the copperplate inscriptions.

From the earliest times until the 8th-9th century CE there were apparently no unequivocal caste based divisions in Tamilagam. TheBrahmins had started moving close with the Pandiya kings by the early 8th century CE and this seemed to have irritated the Chola chiefs of the central Tamilagam, as the former started dominating the political arena and re-instigated northern Sanatana rituals and the brahmadeya grants -the bestowals of commoners' lands to the Sanatanic Sanskritites.

This bias had been the original cause for the uprising of the foot-soldiers and peasants - the "Kalabhras" about 5 centuries ago.

Notwithstanding these discriminations, the Oriental chiefs under the leadership of Chola chieftainIranhmaya Chola of Pazhaiyaarrai, by 690 - 725CEhad started warring repeatedlywith the Pandyas, losing many and winning some battles. Kochadaiyan Ranadeeran seems to have lost his life in one such battle.Around 695 CE when the Pallavas threatened with an invasion he had already defeated and killed Iraniya Varman, the Pallava crown-prince, in a battle on the banks of Vellarru, hence this title.

The Pandyas captured Uraiyur and Southern frontiers of the Cholas by the start of 9th cent. CE, and placed one of their own dominant sects the Mutharaiyas as heads, and initiated the caste hierarchy in the Chola country as well. Due to continuous warfare with the Pandyas and the immigrant dominant Mutharaiyas, the enemy-plotted communal intrusions and the social instability, the Chola chieftains once again were granted overall kingship over erstwhile Kalabhra regions, to safeguard the ancient Tamil-social structuralism and to ward off the varnas-modelled newly synthesized hierarchy of castes. For the next 80 odd years Cholas fought alongside the Pallavas against the Pandyas, to protect their motherland.

Brahmins had started propagating their varnasrama theories into the royal minds and into the society via the discretions in the advocacy of various religious practices.

As a consequence, the caste and the community systems gradually got rooted down among the overlords who inturn began using these systems as an instrument to extend their domination over the then peasants and downtrodden, and specific sects that were the then dominant ones in each major province had started claiming themselves as of the upper strata community. This has been the unchanged social scene over the past 1300 years in the south and over the past 800 years in the north Tamilakam, till this date.

When in 870 CE, Seermaaran Vallabhan tried to eliminate brahmanical influence from the Pandiyan aristocracy, communal riots were instigated and a distant royal cousin and son of a landlord, seized the Madurai throne as an imposter and crowned himself with the regal title "Varagunan II", afterthemysteriousdemise of the kinganddisappearance of theincumbent royal family along with the next-in scions. The Later Pandyas all belong to another usurper the next ruler, who initiated the Mara-Sundara dynasty, who was killed after just twenty years.

The Later Pandyas have the dubious record of abandoning the throne and their country in the early 14th cent. CE, fighting among themselves, letting Malikkafur and the Sultanate into Madurai region, and responsible for creating a power vacuum even long after they were gone, filled in later by the Vijayanagar kings and Nayaks. The current dominant communal sects (of the 20th cent. CE Tamilagam) principally in the south and the east, and also in the central, the west and the north, were the primary reasons for the decline of Tamil supremacy and empires, and handing over of the land to non-native non-Tamil rulers, over the past 700 years. It is to be noted that for many millenia until 700 years ago the integrity and solidarity of Tamilagam had been successfully hailed and maintained by men from those labelled currently the lowest classes in the social hierarchy. (Evidences are overwhelming. There were no records of names of currently dominant sects in Sangam literature. On the contrast there had been umpteen mentions of names of the branded-to-be-lowest social sects. Also the archaic word Pandya has the root word Pallha, denoting people of the plains).

The Vijayanagar-Nayak domination was minimized and delayed by some 225 yearstill 1530's by the Maavali Vaanhar (Banas) rulersof North Madurai, andCholaraaya Vaanharrulers of Tanjore.

[unquote]

http://ancienttamilkinglist.blogspot.in/2015/05/the-first-peasant-revolution-of-world.html

Who are Kalabhras?

[quote]Who are Kalabhras?

Let us find out what the existing theories say.

Muttaraiyar of Kondubalur (eighth to eleventh century C.E.). Some historians believe that Muttaraiyar (Mudirajas) are the descendants of Kalabhras , who lived in the uplands Karnataka (Hampi Region), and Tirupati (Vengadam) Hills. The areas of Hampi and Tirupati hills were part of Dandakaaranya in Deccan India.

Karnatas on the strength of a reference in Tamil literature to the rule of a Karnata king over

MaduraiKalappalar, belonging to Vellala community and referred to in Tamil literature .

Kalabhras with the Kalavar, and the chieftains of this tribe mentioned in Sangam literature are Tiraiyan of Pavattiri and Pulli of Vengadam or Tirupati. The latter is described as the cattle lifting robber chief of the frontier. The Kalavar must have been dislodged from their habitat near Tirupati by political events of the third century A.D., viz. the fall of the Satavahanas and the rise of Pallavas, resulting in political confusion in Tondaimandalam.

Kalabhras => kalabbha => kalamba => kadamba. He is said to have flourished when king Accutavikkanta of the Kalamba (Kadamba) dynasty was one the throne. It is difficult to identify King Accuta or Accutavikkanta (Acyta Vikrama) of Kalabhra with the Kadamba dynasty. But the Kalabhras once made a great influence over the Chola territory and Simhavishnu, the Pallava king, defeated them in late sixth century. Colian king Acytavikranta or Acytavikrama who is described as 'Kalambakulnandana' or 'Kalabbhakulanandana' (also Vaddhana).

According to Poygai Alvar, the Vengadam hill was the habitat of elephants, which the "Kuravars" or "Kurbas" who inhabited or frequented the hill used to capture and tame and also scare away huge pythons. He observes that, the Tamil term Kuravar used by the early Alvars is corruption of "Kuraba", who were residents of this area and also of Kurnool, Mysore, Salem, coimbatore and the Nilgiris. He mentions the names of Kurubalakota, Kurubalpatti, Kuruba Nagalapuram, Kurumba Palayam, Kurumbapatti, Kurumbharhalli etc. in various areas. He says Kurabas or Kuravar were a verile people, who were in possession of Tirupathi Hills and surrounding area before Pallavas conquerred it. Kalabhras => karabhras => kurabhras = kurabaskurabars <=> kuravarskurubas <=> kuruvas

what does literature says?

Buddhadatta, the great writer in Pali, mentions his contemporary, King Achchutavikranta of the Kalabharakula, as ruling over the Chola country from Kaveripatnam. He was a Buddhist, Tamil literary tradition refers to an Achchuta who kept the Chera, Chola and Pandya king in captivity. On the basis of the time of Buddhadatta with Buddhaghosha, Achchuta may be assigned to the fifth century. Thus after the Sangam age, the Cholas were forced into obscurity by the Kalabhras, who disturbed the placid political conditions of the Tamil country.

The period of Kalabhras was marked by the ascendancy of Buddhism, and probably also of Jainism, was characterized by considerable literary activity in Tamil. Most of the works grouped under the head, 'The Eighteen Minor works' might have been written during this period as also the Cilappadhikaram, Manimekalai and other works. Many of the authors were the characterised to belong to the `heretical' (meaning Buddhists and Jains) sects. However, the great Tamil lexicographer Vaiyapuri Pillai had ascribed later dates to many of these works. This theory would undermine the link between the Kalabhras and the Eighteen Minor works.

what does inscriptions say?The Velvikudi inscriptions of the third regnal year of Pandya king Nedunjadaiyan (c.765 - c. 815 C.E.) say that Pandya king Mudukudumi Peruvaludi gave the village of Velvikudi as brahmadeya (gift to a Brahmins). It was enjoyed for long. Then a Kali king named Kalabhran took possession of the extensive earth, driving away numberless great kings.[unquote]

https://controversialhistory.blogspot.in/2007/06/myth-of-kalabhras-invasion-and-rule.html

Virarajendra'sbrief study on the Kalabhra (Kalappirar) period of rule in Tamil Nadu

[quote]A brief study on the Kalabhra (Kalappirar) period of rule of Tamil Nadu

In the mid fourth century in North India the Sathavaahana Empire reached its maximum territorial expansion with Thondalmandalam and it's capital Kanchipuram being the southern limits of his empire. The Sathavahana king appointed the Andhra-Pallava kings Sivaskandavarman and his brother Vishnu Gopa his allys ruling from the Bellary region of Andhra Pradesh consecutively as his viceroys of the southern region of his empire.

With the weakening of the Sathavaahana Empire and the rise of Gupta kings in North India, the king Samudra Gupta invaded and captured many regions of the Sathavaahana's including the Thondaimandalam and its capital the Kanchipuram down south in the year A.D.355. He appears to have handed over the region to its traditional kings the Tamil Thiraiyar dynasty probably under a treaty.

Taking the opportunity with no North Indian empires holding sway in the South, the Kalabhra dynasty known as 'Vadukak Karunaader' (Vaduka=Andhra) tracing their origin from Andhra and ruling from Kolar region of Karnataka - around Nandhi hills also known as the Kalabhra hills, showed interest in the conquer of the Tamil countries down south leaving the Thondaimandalam and it's capital Kanchipuram being the territories of their ally the Tamil Thiraiyar dynasty of this region.

During the the Paandiya country of Tamil Nadu was ruled by king Palyaaka Muthukudumi Peruvaluthi while the Chola country and Chera country were ruled by kings whose name have still not ben established.

In the year around A.D.355 the king Achchutha Vikkiraanthakan of the Kalabhra dynasty (Kalappirar) invaded Tamil Nadu with a sea of warriors on elephants, horses and foot soldiers with spears - spread all over defeated the Chola king and captured the Chola country with their capitals the Uraiyur and Kaviripoompattinam. They then proceeded towards the south to Pandiya (Paandiya) Nadu defeated the king Palyaaka Muthukudumi Peruvaluthi and captured his capital city the Mathuraapuri (Mathurai). Subsequently he also defeated the Chera king (at Vanchi Nagar) and spread his authority over most parts of then Tamil Nadu (MuthThamil Nadu). It appears the Kalabhra king Atchchutha Vikranthahan kept the three kings the Chera Chola and Pandiya in captivity at Thillai (present Chithambaram).

With his capture of Mathurai the Karnataka king gradually favoured the spread of the Jain religion (Samana Samayam) in this region and prevented the Saivite religious practices in Mathurai. They established a Sangam under the Jain monk Vajjira Nanthi at Mathurai probably to promote Jainism through Tamil Lauguage.

Evidence

"......Padai Naanku udantruPanchavan thuranthu Mathurai vaviya Karunada venthan, Arukar saarnthu nintru (Aran) arutpani addaippa......."

Kallaadam by Kallaadanaar, Vidvan Naarayana Velupillai edition.

".......Palyagasaalai Muthukudumi Peruvaluthi ennum Paandiyathi rasan......Velvikkudi enra pathiyai seerodu thiruvalara seithaar venthan appoluthe neeroda atti koduththamai yaan need pukthi thuiththa pin alavariya Aathiraasaraiahala neekki ahal idaththaik Kalappararennum kali arasan kaikonduathanai irakkiyapin......"

Velvikkudi Cheppedukal of Nedunchadaiyan Paranthaka Paandiyan -

.......kaanak kadisoolVaduhak Karunaadar Kaava(la)n maanap padai mannan valinthu nilam kolvaanaay yaanai kuthirai karuvippadai veerar thinder senai kadalung kodu then thisai noakki vanthaan.

Vanthuttra perumpadai manputhaip parappi santha PothiyilThamil naadudai mannan veeram sintha seru ventru than Aanai seluththu maa aartral kantha polil sool Mathurapuri kaaval kondan.

......thaalum kaiyar thavaththai meiyentru saarnthu veelumkodi yon athuvantriyum veyya munnai soolum vinai yaal aravanj sudarthingalodum vaalum sadaiyaan adiyaaraiyum vanmai seivaan......"

Periya Puraanam by poet Seikeelaar, Moorthi Naayanaar padalam. Thirup Pananthaal Sri Kaasi Madam publication

It appears Buddhism too flourished during the period of Kalabhras in certain regions of Tamil Nadu unhindered. It was during the period of the Kalabhra king Achchutha Vikkranthahan the Buddhist Monk Buddhadatta a native of Uragapuram (Uraiyur) while at the monastry at Kaviripoompattinam composed the Buddhist text Abhidhammavatara and when residing at the monastry at Bhutamangalam he composed the Buddhist texts Vinaya-Vinicchaya, the Uttara-Vinicchaya, and the RÃ…Â«pÃ„ÂrÃ…Â«pa-VibhÃ„Âga all in Pali language. Another Buddhist Monk by the name Buddhagosa who lived both in the Chola country Tamil Nadu and in Sri Lanka around the period (A.D.370-450) was a contemporary of Buddhadatta, which gives us an indication of the actual period of Buddhadatta and the Kalabhra king Achchutha Vikkranthakan.

Evidence

(1) Ã¢â‚¬Å“In the lovely Kaveripattana, crowded with hordes of man and women, not belonging to impure castes, endowed richly with all the requisites of a town Ã¢â‚¬Â¦Ã¢â‚¬Â¦. beautified with many gardens, and in a beautiful and pleasant monastery adorned with a mansion as high as the peak of Kailasa, built by Kanhadasa Ã¢â‚¬Â¦Ã¢â‚¬Â¦Ã¢â‚¬Â¦..while I was living in an old house there, by me who shining with qualities, such as writing beautifully on good topics Ã¢â‚¬Â¦Ã¢â‚¬Â¦Ã¢â‚¬Â¦this was composed and propounded extensively.Ã¢â‚¬ÂColophon: This work named Abhidhammavatara was composed by Buddhadatta Achariya, inhabitant of Urugapuram(Ã¢â‚¬ËœUragapuranivasikena AcariyenabhadantaBhuddhadattenakatoAbhidhammavataronamayamÃ¢â‚¬â„¢).

".......Kaveri-pattaneramme, nanaramo pasobhite

KariteKanhadasenadassaniye manorame......."

Abhidhammavatara - Slokas 1409-13, BuddhadattaÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s Manuals, Parts. I and II, Pali Text Society Publication.

Note

The Urugapuram and Kaveripattana in the above were known then and now as Uraiyur close to present Thirutchiraappalli and Kaviripoompattinam close to present Seerkaali of Tamil Nadu.

(2) Ã¢â‚¬Å“In the undisturbed town of Bhutamangala, containing all kinds of people which was the navel of the great Chola kingdom and Ã¢â‚¬Â¦Ã¢â‚¬Â¦Ã¢â‚¬Â¦ in the beautiful and pleasant monastery surrounded by well built outer walls and moat belonging to Venhudasa, brilliant with vanira trees lining the banks of the river Ã¢â‚¬Â¦. by me who lived in a mansion which clarifies the mind was composed in honour of Buddhasimha this compilation on the principles of Vinaya taught by Buddhasimha for the sake of my pupils and for the good of the Bhikkus who wanted to learn the Vinaya in a short time without difficulty.Colophon: It was begun and finished during the reign of the blemishless Acchuta Vikkanta of the Kalabbha kula. ('Accuta Vikkanta Kalabbha kulanandanemahim samanusasante araddho ca samapito')

"....Colaratthe Bhutamaiigala-game

Venhudasassa aramevasantena

Accutavikkama-namassa colaraiino kalekato...."

Vinaya Vinicchaya - Slokas 3168-3179, BuddhadattaÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s Manuals, Parts. I and II, Pali Text Society Publication.

Note

Bhutamangalam of referred in the above, is presently located halfway in-between the Thanjavur and Nagapattinam highway of Tamil Nadu known as the Budamangalam.

However the Pallava king Simhavishnu re-established himself at Kanchi and also captured the Chola country from the Kalabhras in the year...... At Mathurai in Paandiya country the Paandiya king Kadungkon drove the Kalabhras and re-established their control over their region in the year.......[unquote]

http://www.discussworldissues.com/forums/asia/129054-brief-study-kalabhra-kalappirar

Posted 16th August 2017 by kalyan97

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Karthi VeeramalaiMay 23, 2020

Sorry to say but have to friend.. Totally half baked and semi knowledge article. Because you're discussing mainly regards that "kalvara kalvan" with muthraiyar. But you're unaware or illiterate to know even King raja raja cholan also got exactly same title. With so could you call King raja rajan also kalabhra LOL.. Jokes apart. As of now what our archelogy department got only two kings Perumpidigu mutharaiyar alias suvaran maran and Raja raja cholan alias arul mozhi varman

Futher.. Kalabhra = Muthraiyar theory was cruely constructed by casteist minded archelogists in Tamilnadu archelogy department but GOD is there right. 2010 Thiruindalur copper plates exacavation changes everything altogether as it said "vijayalaya cholan wins thanjavur on a war against pallava king kadambavarman" with this findings all those years of lies pinned by those casteist ppls in TN archelogy dept was shattered LOL

Kindly go and Read two things

1.Dr nagasamy report of Thiruindalur copper plates

2.Renadu cholas and Ganga cholas that will open you the way to hidden treasure as "Muthraiyars are cholas" dont missed to Read about Great king Dhanjeya muthuraja who created thanjavur. Telugu language's first inscription was made by him only. "Erikal chola Dhananjeya Muthuraju" where he says Karikalan is my anscestor who built river bed on both sides of cauvery in trichy