Vedic Age of India PART-1
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Life of Aryan People in the Vedic Age of India
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Vedic Period: Geographical Expansion of India During Vedic Period
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Trade and Commerce during the Vedic Period
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Early Vedic Age : Origin, Social Life, Economic Life, Culture and Religion
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Vedic Culture and the Indus Civilization
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Vedic Period: The Rituals and Practices observed during the Vedic Period
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Life of Aryan People in the Vedic Age of India
Among the various groups of mankind, the Aryans are the most famous.
In Sanskrit language, the word Arya means the man of ‘noble character’, and the ‘free-born’.
The descendants of the ancient Aryan race spread over wide areas of Europe and Asia. From the
earliest Aryan language, classical languages as Sanskrit, Latin and Greek came into being.
From these languages again, several other languages developed. They all form the Aryan family of
languages.
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The Earliest Home of the Aryans:
Nobody can say exactly which place on earth was the earliest home of the Aryan people. To some
Indian scholars, the Aryans were the original inhabitants of India and they did not come to this land
from outside. On the other hand, some patriotic European scholars believe that the Aryans originally
lived on the shores of the far-away Baltic Sea. Majority of historians, however, believe that the early
Aryans lived in that region of Europe which now comprises such places as Austria, Hungary and
Bohemia.
From their original home the ancient Aryans spread away to different places. Going south and
westward they divided themselves into several branches and entered into Greece, Italy, Germany,
France, Spain and England. Coming in another direction, they entered into Iran and India.
The name Iran (Persia) comes from the word Aryanam which means the country of the Aryans. In
India, the Aryans first settled in the area known as the Punjab. At first the name of that place was
Saptanada or the Land of the Seven Rivers. Subsequently, it was called Panchanada or the Land of the
Five Rivers. The word Punjab means the Land of the Five Rivers.
The fact that the Aryan tribes of Europe and Asia came from common ancestors is known from their
earliest religious and social terms of use. From the original Aryan word Dyu, came the words Deva in
Sanskrit, Deus in latin, Zeus in Greek, Tiu in Saxon and Zio in German. The original Fire God of the
ancient Aryans became Agni in India, Ignis in Italy, and Ogni in East European lands. The Usha or
Dawn of the Indian Aryans was the same as the Eos of the Greeks and Aurora of the Italians.
Similarly, from the root family terms of the ancient Aryans came such words as Pitar, Matar, Bhratar
and Duhitar in Sanskrit, and Father, Mother, Brother and Daughter in English. Many such words in
Sanskrit and several European languages came from the same Aryan roots. Though they came from
the same ancestors, the different branches of the Aryan people in course of time lived as separate
races and developed their separate individualities.
Coming of the Aryans to India:
The time when the Aryans entered into India is yet a subject of debate. Attempts are made to know
that time from Vedic literature. According to some learned Indians like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, the
earliest Veda, famous as the Rig-Veda, was composed about 4,500 years before Christ. The Aryans
must have come, therefore, several generations before that time.
According to the famous western scholar H.T. Colebrooke, who discovered the Vedas for the western
people, the composition of all the’ Vedas was perhaps finished by 14th century B.C. For several
centuries before that they must have settled in the Punjab. Max Muller believed that the Vedas were
composed about 1500 years before Christ. Another western scholar, Whitney, believed that the
hymns of the Rig-Veda were composed between 2,000 B.C. and 1,500 B.C. Most likely, the Aryans
entered into India around 2,000 years before the birth of Christ. This opinion is held by the majority
of historians.
Soon after their entry into India the Aryans began to compose the Vedas. Much about their early life
in India is known from the descriptions in the Vedas. At first they settled in the Punjab region where
the rivers, Sindhu, Vitasta, Chandrabhaga, Iravati, Bipasa, Satadru and Saraswati flowed.
At that time they had to fight against the primitive people of the land as well as, perhaps with the
civilised Dravidians. The enemies were described in the Vedas as Dasyus and Asuras. In course of
time, the Dravidians, migrated towards the south, and the primitives retired into mountains, hills and
forests. The conquered or subjugated enemies were described as the Dasas.
From the Punjab, the Aryans moved eastward into the river valleys of the Ganges and Yamuna. They
called that region Madhya Desa. Gradually, they spread over the whole of the Uttarapatha. The
landmass between the Himalayas and the Vindhyas and from the western seas to the east was named
as the Aryavarta.
The Vedas:
The Veda happens to be the earliest literature of the Aryan race. Because of its ancient character, it
occupies a unique place in the history of the world literature. The word Veda means the supreme
knowledge. The Aryans believed that the Vedas were the words of God. Heard from the voice of God
they were also called Shruti. The Vedas were transmitted from generation to generation orally and
from memory.
The Vedas were four in number. They were Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. The
earliest, namely, the Rig Veda was composed about 2000 B.C. It contained 1017 hymns which were
divided into 10 Mandalas or parts. The total words numbered more than one lakh and fifty thousand.
Though the Rig Veda was primarily a devotional work of religious nature, yet it contains much
information about the early Aryan ways of life. From the Rig-Veda literature is known the picture of
the early Vedic civilisation. The early Aryan civilisation is generally described as the Vedic Civilisation.
The character of that Civilisation is understood from the social life, economic life, political
organisation, and religious beliefs. Below is given a brief description of the above features of the Rig-
Veda Aryan Civilisation. It is said that the Rig-Veda civilisation showed the zenith of Indian culture
rather than its beginning.
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Vedic Period: Geographical Expansion of India During Vedic Period
Rig Vedic or Early Vedic Period (1500-1000 B.C.):
The Rig-Veda is the only source to give us an idea of the geographical expanse of the Early Vedic
period.
When the early Rig Vedic hymns were written, the focus of Aryan culture was the region between the
Yamuna and Sutudri (Sutlej) and along the upper course of the river Sarasvati.
The geographical area eventually occupied by the Rig Vedic tribes is clearly indicated by the mention
of certain rivers, mountains localities, tribes and kingdoms which permit of easy identification. The
Rigveda mentions the following rivers: Kubha (modern Kabul), the Suvastu (Swat), the Krumu
(Kurram), the Gomati (Gumal), the Sindhu (Indus) and its five tributaries viz., Vitasta (Jhelum), Askini
(Chenab) Parushni (Ravi) Sutudri (Sutlej) and Vipasa (Beas), the Sushoma (Sohan), the Marudvridha
(Maruwardwan), the Sarasvati, the Drishadvati (the Rakshi or Chitang), the Yamuna, the Ganga and
the Sarayu.
The mention of these rivers implies the possession by the Aryans of a considerable portion of the
country stretching from eastern Afghanistan to the upper valley of the Ganges. The major part of this
area came to be known as Sapta Sindhu or the land of the seven rivers by the Aryans (comprising the
five tributaries of the river Indus, Indus and the Sarasvati). The country of the Aryans was also
designated as Aryavarta in the latter scriptures.
The Rig Vedic Aryans were not acquainted with the seas or oceans. Rig-Veda mentions the word
Samudra which probably meant only a collection of water and not sea in this period. The Rig Vedic
Aryans were not familiar with any kind of desert.
The Himalaya or the Himavanta mountains are well known to the Rig Vedic sages but not the
Vindhyas or Satpuras. The other hills referred to are Arjika, Mujavant (referred to as the source of
soma), Silament (Suleman ridge), etc.
The Vedic Tribes:
The whole of the territory known to the Vedic Aryans was divided into a number of tribal principali-
ties ruled normally by the leaders of the various tribes or kings. In the Dasarajna Yuddha or the battle
often kings, alluded to in various Rigvedic hymns many important Vedic tribes and their personalities
are found mentioned.
This battle was between Sudas, a Bharata king of the Tritsu family and the tribal confederacy of ten
kings led by Visvamitra; the federation consisting of the five well-known tribes – Puru, Yadu, Turvasa,
Anu and Druhya-along with five of little note, viz., Alina, Paktha, Bhalanas, Siva and Vishanin.
In the bloody struggle on the banks of river Parushni (Ravi) the Bharatas emerged victorious. The
Sudas had to fight against the three non-Aryan tribes-Ajas, Sigrus and Yakshus under the leadership of
king Bheda, but these new associations were also defeated on the banks of river Yamuna.
The Bharatas were in the Rig Vedic age, settled in the region between the Sarasvati and Yamuna. The
Purus were another very important tribe living on either side of the Saraswati. The Anus, Druhyus,
Yadus and Turvasas were the allies of the Purus against the Bharatas.
These five are the Panchjanah (the five people) of the Rig-Veda according to Zimmer. Yadu and
Turvasa tribes lived in the southern Punjab. The extreme north-west was occupied by the Gandharis,
Pakthas, Alinas, Bhalanas and Vishanins. The Matsyas and Chedis were settled to the south of the
Punjab in the region of Rajasthan and Malwa.
The chief opponents of the Aryans were the indigenous people of non-Aryan origin such as Panis and
Dasas. The Panis in Rigveda are described as wealthy people who refused to patronise the Vedic
priests and perform Vedic rituals, and who stole the cattle of the Aryans. More hated than the Panis
were the Dasas or Dasyus, who were black-skinned, malignant and non-sacrificing and spoke a
language totally different from that of the Aryans. Other prominent Non-Aryan Tribes were the
Anasa, Ayagna, Avrata, Akasman, Asura, Murdvark, etc.
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 B.C.):
This period was marked by further expansion of the Aryans to parts of eastern Uttar Pradesh,
northern Bihar and parts of eastern Rajasthan. The Sathapatha Brahmana throws light on this expan-
sion to the eastern Gangetic plains.
It reports the founding of a realm called ‘Videha’ by a Prince, Videgha Madhava. The Purus and the
Bharatas were amalgamated to form the Kurus, the kingdom of which corresponds to modern
Thaneswar, Delhi and the upper Gangetic Doab.
The Panchalas were also a composite class whose territory roughly corresponds to the modernn day
Bareilly, Badaun, Farukhabad and adjoining districts. The major socio-political centre of this period
was the Kuru- Panchala janapada of the Ganga-Yamuna doab.
Further, regions to the east, such as Kosala (eastern Uttar Pradesh, its early capital was Ayodhya,
later replaced by Srawasti. Kashi (Varanasi), Videha (north Bihar), Magadha (South Bihar), Anga (set
up their settlements on the rivers Son and the Ganges) and Vangas (eastern Bengal).
Northern tribes were the Uttarakurus, the Uttara Madras, Gandharis, Kambojas and the Kekayas. In
South India there were tribes like Satvantas, Vidarbhas, Nishadas, etc., some non-Aryan tribes of the
later Vedic period mentioned in the Aitareya Brahmana are the Andhras, Pundras, Sabaras,
Pulindasand Mutibs.
The later Vedic texts mention rivers such as the Narmada, Gandak, Chambal, etc. The Satapatha
Brahmana mentions the Eastern and Western Seas (Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea). The later three
Vedas give three broad divisions of India, viz. Aryavarta (Northern India), Madhyadesa (Central India),
and Dakshinpatha (Southern India).
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Trade and Commerce during the Vedic Period
The early part of the Vedic period or that preceding it, was an age of economic self-sufficiency and
consequently there was little scope for an exchange of commodities. All the rural centres were self-
supporting. Every house-holder produced the necessaries of life—his farm producing his food-grains
and other necessaries, the industry of the women of his household supplied him with his clothing,
while the craftsmen attached to the village did the rest.
Consequently, there was no inter-dependence between two neighbouring local areas. The surplus
product was kept for future consumption. This state of full economic independence did not however
last long. Society became complex.
A large section of the community gave up the simple agricultural life; the primitive arts and crafts
drew away a large number; owing to these and various other causes, there arose a scope for
interchange of commodities between different local areas.
Barter of goods, and later on, regular purchase and sale came to be introduced. The excess of
production in certain localities induced energetic men to carry them to other places where these
could be disposed of on profit. In this way there arose commercial enterprise, and we find mention of
merchants even in the Rigveda as well as the use of the verb Kri (-meaning purchase; R. V. IV. 24. 10).
But beyond this, the Rigvedic evidence does not tell us anything. We know nothing us to the existence
of markets, though one passage suggests the existence of haggling (IV. 24. 9). The same speaks of
sellers, who demanded, more price than that originally asked for (e.g., something more than that paid
at the time of sale). The buyer on the other hand is represented, as insisting on the original price
demanded and paid for, and is made to insist on the sanctity of contracts (R. V, IV. 24.9).
As to traders we have in the Rigveda the words Vanij and Vanija (R. V, I. 112. 11 and R. V, 45. 6)
denoting a merchant. In the Vaj. Sam. in connection with the Purusamedha the Vanij or merchant is
mentioned as a victim (sea Vaj Sam. XXX. 17 and Taitt. Br. III. 4.14.1). Excepting their existence we
know nothing of the Vedic merchants. The Vedic passages where the word Vanij occurs, tell us
nothing about them, i.e. about the way in which they carried on business, their difficulties or the
profits they made.
When however we come to the Atharva Veda, we have some information about early merchants and
the commodities they carried for exchange. That book (V. 7. 6) mentions garments (Dursa) coverlets
(Pavaita) and goatskin, (Ajina) as articles of trade.
At to merchants the information supplied is really interesting, for an Atharva Vedic hymn (e.g., III.5)
shows that the early merchant was an adventurous wanderer, who moving from place to place, risked
not only his goods, but his life for the sake of gain.
He had to travel from one part of the country to another. His life was often jeopardized owing to the
depredations of wild beasts on the way and owing to the presence of robbers, who scrupled not to
take the life of such people. Consequently, before starting, the merchant prayed to Indra “the
merchant par excellence” (A.V. III. 15.1), so that he might be his “guide and leader, chasing ill-will,
wild beasts and highway robbers.”
After this prayer for security he is described as turning to Agni and praying for “a hundred treasures”
and craving pardon for “this stubbornness.” He is then made to speak of “the distant pathway which
his feet have trodden,” and to call upon the gods to be propitious to him in order that there may be
success in ‘sale (Vikraya), barter (Prapana), and exchange of merchandise’ (Pratipana),—that his
invested capital (Dhanam) may grow more for him and his ventures may be prosperous?
The Vedic merchant, thus, seems to have been an adventurer, in search of gain. He sold, bartered and
exchanged his goods for those of another locality. He appears to have been the fore-runner of the
Svartha-vahas and caravan leaders of the early Buddhist literature and of the Jatakas. The above
hymn is used in the Kausika sutra (K. S, L. 13 for success in business) for success in business.
The Panis:
In addition to these indigenous merchants of the Vaisya caste, we have another class of merchants
designated by the word Pani in Vedic literature (see R. V, I. 33. 3; X, 60. 6; A V, 11. 7; Vaj. Sam.
XXXV.I). According to the evidence of Vedic literature, the Panis were a rich and enterprising
merchant class solely devoted to the cause of gain, either through trade or through usury. They have
been designated Bekanatas or usurers’ and Rigvedic evidence shows that with the exception of a few
of them like Brbu, they were the objects of popular dislike.
According to Roth and Zimmer they were a niggardly merchant class who neither worshipped the
gods nor revered the priests. Ludwig thought, that they belonged to the aboriginal trading class, while
according to Hillebrandt they were the Parnians of Strabo. The identification and association of the
Pani with Bekanata (R. V, VIII. 16. 10 and Nirukta VI. 26) a word of foreign origin (Babylonian or
aboriginal?) is noted by MacDonnell and Keith in their Vedic Index. (I. 472-3).
The growth of trade facilitated the growth of standards and measures of exchange. In course of time a
metallic currency grew and displaced simple barter, or the use of the cow as a standard of value. The
machineries for measuring quantities came into existence.
Balance Weights and Measures:
The balance or the Tula is mentioned in the Vaj. Samhita (XXX. 17) also in the Satapatha Brahamana.
In connection with the estimation of a man’s good and evil deeds, or in connection with the balance
ordeal we find it mentioned.
Wooden vessels of definite size were used in measuring grains. Standards of weight were also
invented. Thus, the Krsnala of (berry of abrus precatorisus) and Masa and some other grains were
used as standards to weight in measuring precious metals. (Vedic Index. I. P. 185).
We have very little information about the inter-change of commodities of various localities. But any
bow there are indications that towards the close of the Vedic period goods from the extreme west
were sent to the east. The wool of Gandhara and Parusni were prized all throughout the land.
Similarly the Atharva Veda which describes Guggula, as a product of the Indus or ‘coming from the
sea’ points to the growth of a centre of maritime trade in the region of Sindh. The Satapatha
Brahmana describes (Sat. Br. XI. I. 5. 12) horses as Saindhavas or coming from the Indus region (Br.
Ar. Up, VI. 2. 13). The Brhadaranyaka Upanisad (11.4. 12) also describes salt as coming from the
Iadus.
Maritime Trade:
It is difficult to answer the question as to whether the sea was known to the Vedic Aryans or whether
these people had any commercial intercourse with the other maritime nations of antiquity. We are
dependent more or less on literary and circumstantial evidence and even then, the material at our
disposal is very scanty. As we have said elsewhere the word Samudra, which in later texts always
means the sea, occurs in the Rigveda which also contains some references to voyages to the Samudra.
Thus Rigveda I. 25. 7., referring to the Samudra, speaks of Varuna’s knowledge of the ocean-routes
(Samudriyah) along which ships sail. A second passage (1. 56. 2) refers to the Samudra in connection
with the activity of merchants. Samudra is again mentioned which describes the voyage of Vasistha
and Varuna (in this passage the word Nava occurs).
In addition to this we have in the Rigveda the story of Bhujyu, son of Tugra, who was sent out by his
father to conquer certain enemies. While at sea his vessels were disabled and he with his followers
were on the point of being drowned. But he prayed to the Asvins who, heard his prayers and sent him
home in a vessel of one hundred oars (Sataritram Davam).
As to the meaning of the word Samudra occurring in the passages mentioned above, some scholars
are of opinion that Samudra meant not the sea but only the “lower course of the Indus which after
receiving the waters of the Punjab rivers is so wide that a boat in mid-stream is invisible from the
bank” (see macdonell. Hist. of Sans. Lit. P. 143). In their Vedic Index, Macdonell and Keith have
discussed this question and cited the opinions of various scholars e.g. those of St. Martin, Lassen, Max
Muller, and Zimmer, (Vedic Index II. P. 431-38).
They have summed up by saying “that there are references to the sea (R. V, I. 47. 6; VII. 6. 7; (X. 97.
44. etc.), perhaps to pearls and the gains of trade and the story of the ship-wrecked Bhujyu seems to
allude to marine navigation.” (The legend of Dirghatamas may be added.). This view is reasonable and
ought to be accepted by all.
As to the existence of trade-relations between India and Babylonia or any other country of the
ancient world, we have no definite or positive information, but there are circumstantial evidences
which throw light upon the contact of nations in antiquity, and go to prove that there existed some
sort of intercourse between India on the one hand, and Assyria Babylonia and some other countries
of the ancient world, on the other.